History is the study of the past (from the Greek word historia, which means "inquiry" or "knowledge gained through research"). History is a broad phrase that refers to both historical events and the gathering, organisation, presentation, and interpretation of information about them.
It is split into three sections: prehistory, protohistory, and history.
1.Pre-history – Pre-history refers to events that occurred before the introduction of writing. The three stone ages reflect prehistoric times.
2.Proto-history- is the period between pre-history and history when a culture or organisation has yet to exist but has been recorded in the written records of a modern literate civilisation. The scripts of the Harappan civilization, for example, have yet to be deciphered; yet, because their existence is recorded in Mesopotamian writing, it is considered proto-history. Vedic civilisation, which lasted from 1500 to 600 BCE, is often regarded proto-history. Archaeologists regard the Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures to be proto-history.
3.History is the study of the past once writing was invented, as well as the study of literate societies based on written records and archaeological evidence.
So how the History is Constructed ?
Non Literary Sources
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| coins |
Coins - Coins, rather than paper, were used to issue currency in ancient India. The first coins discovered in India were punch-marked silver and copper coins with only a few symbols, but subsequent coins had names of monarchs, gods, dates, and other information. The locations where they were discovered indicate the area in which they circulated. This allowed the history of various reigning dynasties to be reconstructed, particularly during the Indo-Greek Empire, which migrated to India from Northern Afghanistan and controlled India in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. Coins shed light on the economic history of several dynasties, as well as providing information on various characteristics such as the writing, art, and religion of the time. It also aids in comprehending the advancements achieved in metallurgy, science, and technology. (Numismatics refers to the study of coins.)
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| Archeology remains of harappan |
Archeology remains - Archaeology is the science that deals with the systematic excavation of historic mounds in successive levels in order to gain a better understanding of people's material lives. The material remnants discovered during excavation and investigation are subjected to a variety of tests. Radiocarbon dating was used to determine their ages. Excavated sites from the Harappan period, for example, provide insight into the lives of those who lived during that time period. Similarly, Megaliths (south Indian burials) shed light on the lives of people who lived in the Deccan and South India before to 300 BCE. The study of plant remains, particularly pollen analysis, can reveal information on climate and vegetation history.
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| inscription |
Inscription - (Epigraphy is the study and interpretation of ancient inscriptions.) Engraved writings on hard surfaces like stone and metals like copper, which usually record some achievements, thoughts, royal orders, and choices, aid in comprehending diverse religions and administrative policies of the time. For example, inscriptions outlining Emperor Ashoka's state policies and inscriptions reflecting land transfers by Satavahanas, Deccan Kings.
Foreign Accounts - Foreign accounts can be used to supplement indigenous literature. Visitors from Greece, China, and Rome came to India, either as tourists or religious converts, and left behind a rich record of our history. Among them were the following notables:
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| Indica |
Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador, wrote "Indica," which contained vital information about Mauryan society and government.
Both "The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea" and "Ptolemy's Geography," both published in Greek, provide vital information about the ports and trade commodities between India and the Roman empire.
A Buddhist wanderer named Fa-Hein Faxien (337 CE – 422 CE) provided a detailed account of the Gupta period.
Literary sources
Religious Literature - Religious literature sheds information on the ancient Indian period's social, economic, and cultural situations. The following are some of the sources:
The Four Vedas are a collection of Hindu scriptures. The Vedas are thought to have been written between 1500 and 500 BCE. The Rigveda primarily comprises prayers, although the later Vedic writings (Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda) include rites, magic, and legendary stories in addition to prayers. In the linked article, you can learn more about the four Vedas.
The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu scriptures. The philosophical arguments on "Atma" and "Paramatma" can be found in the Upanishads (Vedanta).
A Buddhist pilgrim named Hsuan-Tsang visited India and described India under the reign of King Harshavardhana, as well as the splendour of the Nalanda University.
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| Ramayana |
epics of mahabharata and ramayana - The Mahabharata is the elder of the two epics, and it may reflect events from the 10th century BCE to the 4th century CE. It originally had 8800 verses in it (called Jaya Samhita). The Mahabharata, or Satasahasri Samhita, was born when the verses were finally compiled to a total of 1,00,000 verses. It comprises information that is both narrative and descriptive as well as educational. The Ramayana originally had 12000 verses, but it was eventually expanded to 24000. There are didactic sections in this epic that were added afterwards.
Sutras - Shrautasutras (which feature sacrifices and royal crowning) and Grihya Sutras are examples of ceremonial literature found in sutras (which include domestic rituals like birth, naming, marriage, funeral, etc.)
Buddhist religious text - The early Buddhist texts, known as Tripitaka (three baskets) - Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka – were composed in Pali. These documents shed a great deal of insight on the social and economic realities of the time. They also make allusions to political events during the Buddha's lifetime. More information on Buddhism can be found here.
Jains religious text - The Jaina scriptures, known as "angas," were composed in the Prakrit language and include the Jainas' intellectual views. They contain numerous manuscripts that aid in the reconstruction of Mahavira's political history in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Traders and commerce are mentioned several times in the Jaina writings. Find out more about Jainism.
Secular literature
Dharamshastra - These spell out the responsibilities of the several varnas, as well as the monarchs and their officers. They specify the procedures for holding, selling, and inheriting property. They also stipulate punishments for those who commit theft, murder, and other crimes.
Arthashastra - Kautilya's Arthashastra shows the situation of society and economy during the Maurya period
literary work of kalidasa -The great poet Kalidasa wrote kavyas and tragedies, the most famous of which is Abhijnanasakuntalam. They provide insight into the social and cultural life of northern and central India during the Gupta era, as addition to being creative compositions.
Rajatarangini- This is a well-known novel by Kalhana that covers the social and political life of Kashmir in the 12th century CE.
charitas - The Harshacharita, written by Banabhatta in honour of King Harshavardhana, is an example of a charita written by court poets in celebration of their monarchs.
Sangam literature - This is the earliest south Indian literature, written by a group of poets (Sangam), and it contains important information about the social, economic, and political lives of people living in deltaic Tamil Nadu. 'Silappadikaram' and 'Manimekalai' are two literary jewels from Tamil literature. In the linked article, you can learn more about Sangam Literature.
Prehistoric Periods in India – According to Tools
Ancient history can be divided into several periods based on the instruments that were available at the time.
500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age)
10,000 BCE – 6000 BCE Mesolithic Period (Late Stone Age)
6000 BCE – 1000 BCE Neolithic Period (New Stone Age)
3000 BCE – 500 BCE: Chalcolithic Period (Stone Copper Age)
The Iron Age lasted from 1500 BCE until 200 BCE.
Stone Age
Because the stone age is the prehistoric period, that is, before the emergence of the script, archaeological digs are the primary source of knowledge for this time period. Robert Bruce Foote is the archaeologist who found the Pallavaram handaxe, India's first palaeolithic instrument.
The Indian stone age is divided into three kinds based on geological age, the type and technique of stone tools, and the subsistence base.
Period - 500,000 – 10,000 BCE Palaeolithic age (ancient stone age)
Period - 10,000 – 6000 BCE Mesolithic age (late stone age)
Period - 6000 – 1000 BCE Neolithic age (new stone age)
Paleolithic age (old stone age )
Paleolithic is derived from the Greek words palaeo, which means old, and lithic, which means stone. As a result, the term Palaeolithic age refers to the prehistoric period. The old stone age or palaeolithic civilisation of India arose during the Pleistocene epoch, often known as the Ice Age, when the earth was covered in ice and the weather was so cold that neither human or plant life could survive. However, the oldest species of man may have existed in the tropical zone, where ice melted.
The main features of the Palaeolithic period —
The Indians lived in the open air, river valleys, caves, and rock shelters, and were said to be of the 'Negrito' race.
They foraged for food, ate wild fruits and vegetables, and subsisted solely on hunting.
Houses, pottery, and agriculture were unknown to them. They only noticed it in the later phases.
In India, Palaeolithic men are known as 'Quartzite' men because their stone tools were made of quartzite, a hard rock.
In India, the old stone age, also known as the palaeolithic period, is separated into three phases based on the type of stone tools people used and the degree of climate change.
Age of the Lower Palaeolithic: 100,000 BC
100,000 BC - 40,000 BC: Middle Palaeolithic Age
Age of the Upper Palaeolithic: 40,000 BC–10,000 BC
Lower paleolithic age
It spans the majority of the Ice Age.
Hand axes, choppers, and cleavers were employed by hunters and food gatherers. The tools were clumsy and cumbersome.
Bori in Maharashtra is one of the earliest lower Palaeolithic sites.
Limestone was also employed in the manufacture of tools.
Soan valley is a major lower Palaeolithic site (in present Pakistan)
Sites in Kashmir's Thar Desert
. Plains of Mewar
. Saurashtra
. Gujarat
. India's central region
. Chotanagpur plateau north of the Cauvery River Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh
. Caves and rock shelters are examples of habitation sites.
. Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is a significant location.
Middle paleolithic ages -
. Flakes, blades, points, scrapers, and borers were among the tools employed.
. Smaller, lighter, and thinner tools were used.
. In comparison to other instruments, the use of hand axes has decreased.
. The middle section is crucial. Sites from the Paleolithic era
. In the state of Uttar Pradesh, there is a valley called Belan.
. Valley of Luni (Rajasthan)
. Rivers Son and Narmada
. Bhimbetka
. Valleys of the Tungabhadra River
. Plateau of Potwar (between Indus & Jhelum)
. Sanghao is a cave in Sanghao, China (near Peshawar, Pakistan)
. Gujarat is a state in central India.
. Plateau de Deccan
North of the Cauvery River is the Chotanagpur plateau.
In the state of Uttar Pradesh, there is a valley called Belan.
Caves and rock shelters are examples of habitation sites.
Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is a significant location.
Upper paleolithic age -
The end of the ice age coincided with the beginning of the upper palaeolithic period, when the temperature became comparably warmer and less humid.
The first appearance of Homo sapiens.
The time is characterised by technological and tool advancements. Needles, harpoons, parallel-sided blades, fishing tools, and burin tools are among the many bone implements.
Bhimbhetka (South of Bhopal) is a major Upper Palaeolithic site where hand axes and cleavers, blades, scrapers, and a few burins have been discovered.
Belan Son Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar) Maharashtra Orissa and Andhra Pradesh's Eastern Ghats
Only at the cave sites of Kurnool and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi in Andhra Pradesh have bone implements been discovered.
Mesolithic Age
Mesolithic is a term made up of two Greek words:'meso' and 'lithic.' 'Meso' means middle in Greek, while 'lithic' implies stone. As a result, the Mesolithic period is often known as the 'Middle Stone Age.'
The Holocene era encompasses both the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. There was a rise in temperature throughout this time period, and the climate got warmer, resulting in ice melting and changes in flora and fauna.
The Mesolithic Era was characterised by a number of distinct characteristics.
. Initially, inhabitants of this era subsisted on hunting, fishing, and foraging for food, but as time passed, they also domesticated animals and cultivated plants, opening the way for agriculture.
. The wild progenitor of the dog was the first animal to be domesticated. The most prevalent domesticated animals were sheep and goats.
. People throughout the Mesolithic period lived in semi-permanent communities as well as caves and open areas.
. People of this era believed in life after death, thus they buried their loved ones with food and other valuables.
. Microliths – miniature stone tools formed of crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony, or chert, in both geometrical and non-geometrical shapes – were the defining tools of this era. After hafting them on wooden or bone handles, they were used to produce composite tools, spearheads, arrowheads, and sickles, among other things. Mesolithic man was able to hunt smaller animals and birds because to these microliths.
. Mesolithic men began to dress in animal skin clothing.
. Mesolithic humans were art enthusiasts who created rock art. The subject matter of these paintings was largely wild creatures, but they also represented hunting scenes, dancing, and food gathering. These rock paintings depict the evolution of religious activities as well as the split of society.
important Mesolithic sites
. Bagor in Rajasthan is one of India's most extensive and well-documented Mesolithic sites. Bagor is located on the Kothari River, where microliths, animal bones, and shells have been discovered.
. The oldest evidence for animal domestication can be found in Madhya Pradesh's Adamgarh.
. There are roughly 150 Mesolithic rock art sites in India, with the Bhimbetka caves (Madhya Pradesh), Kharwar, Jaora, and Kathotia (M.P), Sundargarh and Sambalpur (Odisha), and Ezhuthu Guha (Orissa) having the highest concentration (Kerala).
. Microliths have also been discovered in the Tapi, Sabarmati, Narmada, and Mahi river valleys.
. Important Mesolithic sites include Langhnaj in Gujarat and Biharanpur in West Bengal. Wild animal bones (rhinoceros, blackbuck, and so on) have been discovered in Langhnaj. These sites have yielded several human skeletons as well as a considerable amount of microliths.
Although pottery has not been found at most Mesolithic sites, it has been discovered in Langhnaj (Gujarat) and others.
Neolithic Ages ( new stone ages)
Neolithic is derived from the Greek words "neo" which means "new" and "lithic" which means "stone." As a result, the 'New Stone Age' is referred to as the Neolithic Age. It is also known as the 'Neolithic revolution,' since it brought about numerous significant improvements in man's social and economic existence. Man evolved from a food gatherer to a food producer throughout the Neolithic period.
The Neolithic Period's Characteristics
Tools and Weapons — In addition to polished stone tools, the inhabitants employed microlithic blades. Celts were notably significant for hand axes that were ground and polished. They also employed bone-based tools and weaponry, including as needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads, and so on. Humans were able to farm, hunt, and do other activities more efficiently thanks to the use of new polished implements.
Agriculture - Neolithic people farmed land and grew fruits and corn such as ragi and horse gramme (kulati). Cattle, sheep, and goats were also domesticated.
Pottery - With the introduction of agriculture, humans had to store their food grains as well as cook, eat, and so on. As a result, it is stated that pottery arose in significant quantities during this period. Greyware, black-burnished ware, and mat imprinted ware were the three classifications for this period's ceramics. Handmade pottery was employed in the early Neolithic period, but later on, foot wheels were utilised to create pots.
Housing and Settled Life - People in the Neolithic period lived in rectangular or circular mud and reed homes. Neolithic man could also spin cotton, wool, and weave textiles, as well as build boats.
Neolithic Sites of Importance
Koldihwa and Mahagara (south of Allahabad) — Evidence of circular houses and rudimentary hand-made earthenware may be seen here. There is also evidence of rice, which is the oldest evidence of rice found anywhere in the world, not only in India.
Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan) — The earliest Neolithic site, where people lived in sun-dried brick dwellings and grew cotton and wheat crops.
Burzahom (Kashmir) - Domestic dogs were buried beside their masters in their graves; people lived in pits and utilised polished stone and bone implements.
Gufkral (Kashmir) - Famous for pit dwellings, stone tools, and house graveyards, this neolithic site is located in Kashmir.
The neolithic men of Chirand (Bihar) employed bone tools and weapons.
Cattle herders lived in Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Maski, Takkalakota, and Hallur (Karnataka). Sheep and goats were domesticated. Mounds of ash have been discovered.
The Belan Valley (on the northern spurs of the Vindhyas and in the centre of the Narmada Valley) – The palaeolithic, mesolithic, and neolithic ages are all found in chronological order.
Chalcolithic Age (stone copper age)
Metal tools coexisted alongside stone tools for the first time during the Chalcolithic Age. Copper was the first metal to be utilised. The chalcolithic epoch is usually associated with the pre-Harappan period, however it may also be found after the bronze Harappan epoch in several parts of the country.
The Chalcolithic Period's Characteristics
Agriculture and cattle raising — People in the stone-copper period domesticated animals and grew food grains. They hunted deer and domesticated cows, sheep, goats, pigs, and buffaloes. It's unclear whether or not they were familiar with the horse. People ate beef, but pork was not consumed in large quantities. The Chalcolithic period's inhabitants grew wheat and rice, as well as bajra. They also produced lentil (masur), black gramme, green gramme, and grass pea, among other pulses.
Pottery – During the stone-copper period, people employed various forms of pottery, one of which is known as black and red pottery and appears to have been commonly utilised at the time. Also popular was ochre-colored ceramics. The potter's wheel was employed, as well as white linear design painting.
Rural communities - People living in the stone age lived in rural settlements and had little experience with charred bricks. They resided in mud brick dwellings with thatched roofs. Chiefs dwelt in rectangular dwellings, while commoners lived in round huts, signalling the beginning of societal disparities. Their settlements were made up of over 35 dwellings of various sizes, both round and rectangular in design. The chalcolithic economy is a village-based economy.
Coppersmithing was a specialty of the Chalcolithic people. They had mastered the trade of copper smelting and were also skilled stone masons. They were skilled in spinning and weaving, as well as the technique of cloth production. They did not, however, know how to write.
Worship - Chalcolithic sites have yielded little clay images of earth deities. As a result, it is possible to conclude that they revered the Mother Goddess. Bull terracottas in Malwa and Rajasthan reveal that the bull was used as a sacred cult.
Infant mortality - As evidenced by the burial of a significant number of children in West Maharashtra, infant mortality was high among the Chalcolithic inhabitants. Despite being a food-producing country, infant mortality was quite high. The Chalcolithic social and economic pattern did not enhance lifespan, as far as we can tell.
The Chalcolithic Period in Jewellery
Ornaments and adornment were popular among the Chalcolithic people. The women had skillfully wrought combs in their hair and wore shell and bone decorations. Carnelian, steatite, and quartz crystal beads were among the semi-precious stones they produced.
Sites of Historical Importance in the Chalcolithic Era
Ahar (Banas valley, South Eastern Rajasthan) - Smelting and metallurgy were practised in this location, and copper implements were supplied to other contemporary civilizations. Rice was grown in this area.
The stone blade industry was discovered in Gilund (Banas valley, Rajasthan).
Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) - The Godavari Valley's largest Jorwe culture site. It is known for the discovery of bronze rhinos, elephants, two-wheeled chariots with riders, and buffalo.
Malwa (Madhya Pradesh) - Malwa culture settlements are typically found along the Narmada and its tributaries. It has the richest chalcolithic ceramics as well as spindle whorls.
Kayatha (Madhya Pradesh) - Kayatha culture settlements were largely found along the Chambal River and its tributaries. There were mud-plastered floors in the houses, pre-Harappan elements in pottery, and copper artefacts with sharp cutting edges.
Prehistoric period
The Aryans Arrive: The Vedic Period
After the Indus Valley, the Mahajanapadas were the first great civilisations along the Ganga's banks.
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